Freemasonry

Freemasonry, a worldwide fraternal organization, often calls itself "a
peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols."
Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and
metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in
a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects
of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give
numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an
initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues,
and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen.

Membership

Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the
meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives.
Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all
denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth.
Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction"
of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted,
having comprised a large portion of the membership in the 18th century. In
those branches deriving from French Freemasonry, atheists and agnostics are
also accepted, without qualification. English Freemasonry and its
derivatives (which make up the bulk of the Freemasonic world) currently
require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree
of nondogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad
interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic
views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Spinoza and Goethe (himself a
Freemason), or nontheistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such
as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that
matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking)
jurisdictions, Freemasony is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the
18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and
orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including
(mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The
Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia accepts only Christians.

Generally, to be a Freemason, one must:

  1. be a man, if joining a masculine jurisdiction, or a woman, if joining a
     feminine jurisdiction (unless joining a co-Masonic jurisdiction with no
     gender requirement),
  2. believe in a "Supreme Being", or, in some jurisdictions, a "Creative
     Principle" (unless joining an "adogmatic" jurisdiction with no
     religious requirement),
  3. be at least the minimum age (18-25 years depending on the
     jurisdiction),
  4. be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and
  5. be free (or "born free", i.e. not born a slave).

The gender requirement was traditionally for men only, and the inclusion of
women is still a matter of controversy in some (mostly North American)
jurisdictions. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern
Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but
remains there for historical reasons. It is frequently re-interpreted today
as meaning something like "free-thinking". The "sound body" requirement is
today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge
rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.

Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or
in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons
through rituals. Members working through the rituals are awarded "degrees".
Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as
well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable
variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the
world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more
emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts
of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.

While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in
politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of
political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye:
the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public
schools, and democratic revolutions (in the United States and France on a
smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil,
and repeatedly in Italy).

Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been
inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the
Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari,
which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal
organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry
to a greater or lesser extent.

Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by
many to be the very prototype for such societies. The degree of secrecy
varies widely around the world, however. In English-speaking countries, most
Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are
clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record.
In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even
currently, supressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in
earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the
English-speaking world, however, certain aspects of the fraternity are still
kept secret. The precise details of the rituals are not made public, and
Freemasons have a system of secret signs of recognition, such as the Masonic
secret handshake, by which Masons can recognize each other, and which are
universally kept strictly secret (although all these "secrets" have been
available in printed exposes for many years).

Criticism and repression

Freemasonry has been a long-time favourite target of conspiracy theorists,
who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and
usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of
world politics.

Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In Nazi
Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges
were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue Forget-Me-Not as a
secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and
too-easily-recognized) square and compasses.

In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort
of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal
dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after
threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he
had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was
investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a
result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued
to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused
some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or
refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the
Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all
public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.

Ritual and Symbols

The Freemasons rely heavily upon the architectural symbolism of their
erstwhile Medieval namesakes who actually worked in stone. One of their
principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so
arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to
represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the
square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure
of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or
subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being nondogmatic, there is
no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses
straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In
the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of
metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol
of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a
letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry".

The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with
the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking
countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of
inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or
jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran or a book of
philosophy. In many French Lodges, the Masonic constitutions are used. In a
few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge
was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as
a symbol of written wisdom and inspiration, the VSL symbol is what Masonic
obligations are sworn on.

Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular
geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many
rationalists (such as Voltaire, Fichte, Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark
Twain and many others). Freemasons thus have a tendency to view the
metaphysics of the universe as heavily tied into geometrical principles. No
particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although
there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism,
and from early modern Rationalism.

In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the
Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to
in Masonic ritual as "the Great Geometrician", or the "Great (or Grand)
Architect (or Artificer) of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of
labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid
the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or
God-like concept (and in much of French-derived Freemasonry, direct
reference to the G.A.O.T.U. is optional).

There are three "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2)
Fellowcraft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking
part in a ritual, essentially a Medieval Morality Play, in which one plays a
role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is
the building of the Temple of Solomon, although the stories told are not
from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in
nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be
taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the
human community, or of the entire universe.

As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets
them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there
are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to
interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common
structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for
each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions.
Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental
Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures.

Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use
of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism
and its interpretation are:

  1. "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty,
     Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.
  2. "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline,
     Paris, 2000.

An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square",
meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage.
Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include meeting "on the level"
(without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences), and
putting someone "through the third degree". The practice of Freemasonry is
referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".

Organizational Structure

There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each
sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a
geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although
each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally
"recognizes". If the other jursidiction reciprocates the recognition, the
two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of
the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's
Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another
jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for
"regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least,
the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics
considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with
the decentralized and nondogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is
no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity
with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those
landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to
what the landmarks are.

Although there are hundreds of Masonic jurisdictions, they can be roughly
grouped into two basic branches or traditions, sometimes loosely referred to
as the "English" (or "Anglo") and the "French" (or "Continental")
traditions. On the whole, the jurisdictions within each branch are in amity
with each other. In reality, there is no tidy way to split jurisdictions
into separate camps like this. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize
B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the
geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which
may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases,
one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a
desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally
affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the
other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be
taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.

The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand
Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single
country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in
North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest
jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the United Grand Lodge of
England (UGLE), founded in 1717. The oldest in the Continental branch is the
Grand Orient de France (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches
recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with
the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin
countries, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the
world tends to follow the English lead.

Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the
Scottish Rite, the York Rite, and the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of
the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), among numerous others, all of which to expand
on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while
improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary
in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these
organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to
Freemasonry proper (or "Craft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic
teachings from a particular perspective.

There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are
associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their
content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21) and the Job's
Daughters (for girls of similar ages).

History of Freemasonry

Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval
guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers
of Christ and the Temple of Solomon" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot
of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of
Zion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual
descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins.
Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has
no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are
noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled
from a sea of books:

  1. In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub.
     circa 1927
  2. In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989
  3. In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard
     Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982

Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry
may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a
straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous
reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the
reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not
appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin,
that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret
signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry
are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.

Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York
Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the
very late 10th century C.E.. Athelstan is said by some to have been
converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to
the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated.

Some members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS)
consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to
be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the
Freemasonic rituals and say this similarity is because the Masonic rituals
are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still
contain many of the original truths.

A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source
asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius
Poem, which is believed to date from ca. 1390, and which makes reference to
several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The
manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it is seems to be
an elaboration.

It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins,
Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers
during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this
has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As
the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided,
and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the
fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four
Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury
Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and
Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2))
combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand
Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open
throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this
was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public
organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with
certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees,
but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.

Women in Freemasonry

The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men
could be made Freemasons. This has been changing in the last hundred years,
but more quickly in some jurisdictions than others. In Britain and France,
and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as
those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which
admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that
admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to
become Freemasons per se, but to join an associated body with its own,
separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only
male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a
completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of
Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.

The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to
co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo
jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women,
although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal
acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense. The
UGLE, for instance, has "recognized" (since 1998) two local women's
jurisdictions as regular in practice, except for their inclusion of women,
and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be
regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry
is rapdily changing in the English-speaking world. While, in many cases,
North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the
remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.

Prince Hall Masonry

In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall was initiated into an Irish
Constitution Military Lodge, along with fourteen other African Americans,
all of whom were free by birth. When the Military Lodge left the area, the
African Americans were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form
Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals,
but not to confer degrees nor to do other Masonic Work. These individuals
applied for, and obtained, a Warrant for Charter from the Grand Lodge of
England in 1784 and formed African Lodge #459. Despite being stricken from
the rolls for non-payment of dues after 1813, the Lodge restyled itself as
the African Grand Lodge #1 (not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges
on the Continent of Africa) and separated from UGLE-recognised Masonry. This
lead to a tradition of separate, predominately African American
jurisidctions in North America, known collectively as "Prince Hall
Freemasonry", which flourished due to widespread racism in North America,
which prevented African Americans from joining many mainstream lodges (for
instance, the traditional "born free" entrance requirement may have been
used in some lodges to exclude Americans of African descent). Presently,
Prince Hall Masonry is recognised by some UGLE-recognized Grand Lodges and
not by others, and appears to be working its way toward full recognition.

The Two Great Schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877)

The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions
with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the
"Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry,
known colloquially as the "Antients". The Antients broke away and formed
their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the
secret modes of recognition. The differences between the two groups ran
deeper than just that, however. The "Antients" were based in York, and
claimed that their version of the Freemasonic Ritual (which included an
additional fourth degree, the "Royal Arch", with Christian elements) was
truer to ancient tradition. From the point of view of the Moderns (actually
the older group, in spite of the name), the Antients were trying to
Christianize a fraternity that had always been non-Christian and religiously
nondogmatic. From the Antient point of view, on the other hand, the
fraternity had been a Christian organization during the Middle Ages, and the
Moderns had de-Christianized it. (In fact, both groups changed Masonry in
the eighteenth century by adding new degrees, so neither could really lay
claim to be thoroughly ancient in practice.) Tensions between the two groups
were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for
instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would
no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a
Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock,
Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).

The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand
Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which
left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of
recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry per se as consisting of
three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the
Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher
degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of
the third degree.

Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout
the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great
deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized
jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an
agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the
United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a
concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").

The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877,
when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. This on-going schism
is in many ways a re-emergence of the same basic conflict that created the
split between the Antients and Moderns: the religious requirements, if any,
for being a Freemason. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest
single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the
French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the
tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and
politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban
it as outright as do the English . The schism between the two
branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time,
especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted
to be able to visit French Lodges.

Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry
(that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid
Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art".
The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree,
leaving their particular Opinions to themselves". In 1815, the newly
amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox
overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is
not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect
of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The
English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and
in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a
nontheistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to
enter the fraternity.

In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being"
requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly
admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing
the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less
theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough
for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance
requirements, making the original Anderson document of 1723 their official
constitution. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal
reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still
present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an
alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict
themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but
offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose).